Arrian

Although he could not interview participants, he had access to earlier histories that have since been lost. His principal authorities were Ptolemy, one of Alexander’s officers and the later ruler of Egypt, and Aristobulus, who had accompanied the Macedonian expedition. He also drew on writers such as Nearchus, Alexander’s naval commander, particularly for the voyage from India.

He served as a Roman senator, consul and governor of Cappadocia, where he commanded legions and prepared to confront an incursion by the Alans. His writings on cavalry tactics and battle formations demonstrate a practical understanding of reconnaissance, logistics, terrain, discipline and command. This experience helped him explain Alexander’s marches, sieges and battlefield decisions with greater technical clarity than many ancient biographers. His work is therefore indispensable but must be compared with other surviving traditions, including Plutarch, Diodorus and Curtius Rufus.

In Arrian’s The Campaigns of Alexander, Arrian’s Campaigns of Alexander is one of the most important ancient sources for Alexander’s campaigns from Macedon and Asia Minor to Egypt, Persia, Central Asia and India.